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Scientists confirm that parts of earliest genetic material may have come from the stars
by Eurek Alert
Thanks to Richard Prins for the link.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-06/icl-sct061308.php
Scientists confirm that parts of earliest genetic material may have come from the stars
Scientists have confirmed for the first time that an important component of early genetic material which has been found in meteorite fragments is extraterrestrial in origin, in a paper published on June 15, 2008
Scientists have confirmed for the first time that an important component of early genetic material which has been found in meteorite fragments is extraterrestrial in origin, in a paper published on 15 June 2008.
The finding suggests that parts of the raw materials to make the first molecules of DNA and RNA may have come from the stars.
The scientists, from Europe and the USA, say that their research, published in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters, provides evidence that life's raw materials came from sources beyond the Earth.
The materials they have found include the molecules uracil and xanthine, which are precursors to the molecules that make up DNA and RNA, and are known as nucleobases.
The team discovered the molecules in rock fragments of the Murchison meteorite, which crashed in Australia in 1969.
They tested the meteorite material to determine whether the molecules came from the solar system or were a result of contamination when the meteorite landed on Earth.
The analysis shows that the nucleobases contain a heavy form of carbon which could only have been formed in space. Materials formed on Earth consist of a lighter variety of carbon.
Lead author Dr Zita Martins, of the Department of Earth Science and Engineering at Imperial College London, says that the research may provide another piece of evidence explaining the evolution of early life. She says:
"We believe early life may have adopted nucleobases from meteoritic fragments for use in genetic coding which enabled them to pass on their successful features to subsequent generations."
Between 3.8 to 4.5 billion years ago large numbers of rocks similar to the Murchison meteorite rained down on Earth at the time when primitive life was forming. The heavy bombardment would have dropped large amounts of meteorite material to the surface on planets like Earth and Mars.
Co-author Professor Mark Sephton, also of Imperial's Department of Earth Science and Engineering, believes this research is an important step in understanding how early life might have evolved. He added:
"Because meteorites represent left over materials from the formation of the solar system, the key components for life -- including nucleobases -- could be widespread in the cosmos. As more and more of life's raw materials are discovered in objects from space, the possibility of life springing forth wherever the right chemistry is present becomes more likely."
###
For further information please contact:
Colin Smith
Press Officer
Imperial College London
Email: cd.smith@imperial.ac.uk
Tel: +44 (0)207 594 6712
Out of hours duty press officer: +44 (0)7803 886 248
Dr Zita Martins
Department of Earth Science and Engineering
South Kensington Campus
Imperial College London
London SW7 2AZ, UK
Tel: +44 (0)20 7594 9982
Fax: +44 (0)20 7594 7444
Email: z.martins@imperial.ac.uk
http://www.imperial.ac.uk/people/z.martins
Notes to editors:
1. "Extraterrestrial nucleobases in the Murchison meteorite", Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Sunday 15 June 2008 (Print publication)
A full copy of the research can be downloaded at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.026
Zita Martins (1,2), Oliver Botta (3,4,5), Marilyn L. Fogel (6), Mark A. Sephton (2), Daniel P. Glavin (3), Jonathan S. Watson (7), Jason P. Dworkin (3), Alan W. Schwartz (8), Pascale Ehrenfreund (1,3)
(1) Astrobiology Laboratory, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
(2) Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
(3) NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Code 699, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA
(4) Goddard Earth Sciences and Technology Center, University of Maryland Baltimore, County, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA
(5) International Space Science Institute, Hallerstrasse 6, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
(6) GL, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC 20015, USA
(7) Planetary and Space Sciences Research Institute, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK
(8) Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 ED, Nijmegen,The Netherlands
2. About Imperial College London
Imperial College London - rated the world's fifth best university in the 2007 Times Higher Education Supplement University Rankings - is a science-based institution with a reputation for excellence in teaching and research that attracts 12,000 students and 6,000 staff of the highest international quality. Innovative research at the College explores the interface between science, medicine, engineering and business, delivering practical solutions that improve quality of life and the environment - underpinned by a dynamic enterprise culture. Website: www.imperial.ac.uk
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-06/icl-sct061308.php
Scientists confirm that parts of earliest genetic material may have come from the stars
Scientists have confirmed for the first time that an important component of early genetic material which has been found in meteorite fragments is extraterrestrial in origin, in a paper published on June 15, 2008
Scientists have confirmed for the first time that an important component of early genetic material which has been found in meteorite fragments is extraterrestrial in origin, in a paper published on 15 June 2008.
The finding suggests that parts of the raw materials to make the first molecules of DNA and RNA may have come from the stars.
The scientists, from Europe and the USA, say that their research, published in the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters, provides evidence that life's raw materials came from sources beyond the Earth.
The materials they have found include the molecules uracil and xanthine, which are precursors to the molecules that make up DNA and RNA, and are known as nucleobases.
The team discovered the molecules in rock fragments of the Murchison meteorite, which crashed in Australia in 1969.
They tested the meteorite material to determine whether the molecules came from the solar system or were a result of contamination when the meteorite landed on Earth.
The analysis shows that the nucleobases contain a heavy form of carbon which could only have been formed in space. Materials formed on Earth consist of a lighter variety of carbon.
Lead author Dr Zita Martins, of the Department of Earth Science and Engineering at Imperial College London, says that the research may provide another piece of evidence explaining the evolution of early life. She says:
"We believe early life may have adopted nucleobases from meteoritic fragments for use in genetic coding which enabled them to pass on their successful features to subsequent generations."
Between 3.8 to 4.5 billion years ago large numbers of rocks similar to the Murchison meteorite rained down on Earth at the time when primitive life was forming. The heavy bombardment would have dropped large amounts of meteorite material to the surface on planets like Earth and Mars.
Co-author Professor Mark Sephton, also of Imperial's Department of Earth Science and Engineering, believes this research is an important step in understanding how early life might have evolved. He added:
"Because meteorites represent left over materials from the formation of the solar system, the key components for life -- including nucleobases -- could be widespread in the cosmos. As more and more of life's raw materials are discovered in objects from space, the possibility of life springing forth wherever the right chemistry is present becomes more likely."
###
For further information please contact:
Colin Smith
Press Officer
Imperial College London
Email: cd.smith@imperial.ac.uk
Tel: +44 (0)207 594 6712
Out of hours duty press officer: +44 (0)7803 886 248
Dr Zita Martins
Department of Earth Science and Engineering
South Kensington Campus
Imperial College London
London SW7 2AZ, UK
Tel: +44 (0)20 7594 9982
Fax: +44 (0)20 7594 7444
Email: z.martins@imperial.ac.uk
http://www.imperial.ac.uk/people/z.martins
Notes to editors:
1. "Extraterrestrial nucleobases in the Murchison meteorite", Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Sunday 15 June 2008 (Print publication)
A full copy of the research can be downloaded at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.026
Zita Martins (1,2), Oliver Botta (3,4,5), Marilyn L. Fogel (6), Mark A. Sephton (2), Daniel P. Glavin (3), Jonathan S. Watson (7), Jason P. Dworkin (3), Alan W. Schwartz (8), Pascale Ehrenfreund (1,3)
(1) Astrobiology Laboratory, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
(2) Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
(3) NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Code 699, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA
(4) Goddard Earth Sciences and Technology Center, University of Maryland Baltimore, County, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA
(5) International Space Science Institute, Hallerstrasse 6, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
(6) GL, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC 20015, USA
(7) Planetary and Space Sciences Research Institute, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK
(8) Radboud University Nijmegen, 6525 ED, Nijmegen,The Netherlands
2. About Imperial College London
Imperial College London - rated the world's fifth best university in the 2007 Times Higher Education Supplement University Rankings - is a science-based institution with a reputation for excellence in teaching and research that attracts 12,000 students and 6,000 staff of the highest international quality. Innovative research at the College explores the interface between science, medicine, engineering and business, delivering practical solutions that improve quality of life and the environment - underpinned by a dynamic enterprise culture. Website: www.imperial.ac.uk
Comments 1 - 35 of 35 |
Reload Comments | Back to Top | Page Numbers2. Comment #192671 by Neuro on June 13, 2008 at 10:12 pm
IVELLIOS:I believe you're refering to the 2nd law of thermodynamics. However, the 2nd law is just heat [energy] transfer (hot --> cold [heat transfer]) & entropy does not change in a closed system. Earth's in an open system.
Also, chaos in laymen terms is not really the same as chaos in chemistry & physics.
Here are two good websites about the law: http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CF/CF001.html
http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/mod_tech/node78.html
-------
Very interesting. So, they are saying that the beginnings of 'life' existed, and then bits and pieces of this or like-kind meteorite sprinkled down, and the pieces may have incorporated themselves?
That is so cool that they found traces of uracil and xanthine.
Science just keeps progressing. . .
Other Comments by Neuro
3. Comment #192675 by randumbness47 on June 13, 2008 at 10:30 pm
"The analysis shows that the nucleobases contain a heavy form of carbon which could only have been formed in space. Materials formed on Earth consist of a lighter variety of carbon. "I'd like to know more about this. What prevents the heavier carbon to form on Earth, or allows it to form only in space?
Other Comments by randumbness47
4. Comment #192681 by tybowen on June 13, 2008 at 10:56 pm
Well this is interesting, all it really says to me (just from this article, I haven't seen any scientific reports) taht the building blocks of life aren't unique to earth. I don't see how this meteorite proves that earth life didn't originate on earth. Just another proof that evolution is everywhere. Other Comments by tybowen
5. Comment #192817 by mordacious1 on June 14, 2008 at 2:23 am
I think that they might be leaping to say that the material for containing the heavier form of carbon could only be formed in space. Everything on Earth was formed in stars, so couldn't Earth contain this carbon too? And can someone explain, if this is so, how do we replicate without the heavier form of carbon, which can only be formed in space? hmmm Other Comments by mordacious1
6. Comment #192823 by bachfiend on June 14, 2008 at 2:40 am
I'm sceptical too. The heavier form of carbon referred to is carbon 13, a stable non-radioactive isotope which makes up 1% of the carbon on Earth, so it doesn't require cosmic radiation to form. Frankly, it reminds me of that very silly novel by Dan Brown "Deception Point" (all right, I know that they are all silly).Other Comments by bachfiend
7. Comment #192827 by rod-the-farmer on June 14, 2008 at 2:44 am
I tried to open the full article, but you have to be a member of Science Direct, or, pay $13.50. But it certainly looks like they have more details on which carbon isotopes are involved. Perhaps someone more educated in chemistry than I can get a copy and report the details. Other Comments by rod-the-farmer
8. Comment #192831 by Greyman on June 14, 2008 at 2:49 am
The answer is probably in those percentages. We know how much carbon isotopes can curretly be found in terestrial biological matterial. So if by comparison the metorite matterial contains a statistically different percentage, local contamination can be excluded as a source.
PS: mordacious1, space borne carbon is continually being irradiated, forming heavier isotopes. But once that carbon arrived and was protected from cosmic raditation, the less stable isotopes would have since decayed. However, the chemistry of replication is not dependant on the isotopes of carbon involved.
Other Comments by Greyman
9. Comment #192855 by Palmer_Eldritch on June 14, 2008 at 4:26 am
Here is the abstract:Carbon-rich meteorites, carbonaceous chondrites, contain many biologically relevant organic molecules and delivered prebiotic material to the young Earth. We present compound-specific carbon isotope data indicating that measured purine and pyrimidine compounds are indigenous components of the Murchison meteorite. Carbon isotope ratios for uracil and xanthine of δ13C = 44.5‰ and 37.7‰, respectively, indicate a non-terrestrial origin for these compounds. These new results demonstrate that organic compounds, which are components of the genetic code in modern biochemistry, were already present in the early solar system and may have played a key role in life's origin.
Other Comments by Palmer_Eldritch
10. Comment #192856 by Drew on June 14, 2008 at 4:27 am
Edit: Deleted the abstract because Palmer_Eldritch beat me to it. Other Comments by Drew
11. Comment #192858 by Haymoon on June 14, 2008 at 4:48 am
So, we've come from heaven (sky) after all ;) Other Comments by Haymoon
12. Comment #192859 by Palmer_Eldritch on June 14, 2008 at 4:51 am
Sorry Drew, if you're not fast you're last ;-)Just edited it to tidy up the special chracters.
Also, this stuff should be free to all.
Ben Goldacre at www.badscience.net has written about this and you should also look here and sign the petition.
Other Comments by Palmer_Eldritch
13. Comment #192905 by RobDinsmore on June 14, 2008 at 7:41 am
I believe you're refering to the 2nd law of thermodynamics. However, the 2nd law is just heat [energy] transfer (hot --> cold [heat transfer]) & entropy does not change in a closed system. Earth's in an open system.
Also, chaos in laymen terms is not really the same as chaos in chemistry & physics.
This is incorrect. dS >= 0 in a closed system.
If entropy did not change in a closed system then you could theoretically set up an isolated system in an extremely low entropy configuration , ie all the gas confined to a small percentage of the total volum, e and expect it to stay that way.
Other Comments by RobDinsmore
14. Comment #192936 by ridelo on June 14, 2008 at 9:47 am
Is it right if I word it like this? The molecules with "space-carbon" landed on earth and somehow started to replicate themselves using compounds with "earth-carbon". This way the bulk of terrestrial DNA incorporates mostly "earth-C" but the molecules in the Murchison meteorite were shielded against contamination with "earth-C" and thus of the "space-C" type. Other Comments by ridelo
15. Comment #192941 by qomak on June 14, 2008 at 9:52 am
One question, ruling out the "Goddidit idea", this organize material must have been made somewhere. Does anyone know why it is hard for uracil and xanthine to have been formed in the primordial sea? Other Comments by qomak
16. Comment #192955 by HourglassMemory on June 14, 2008 at 10:32 am
"Confirmed" or made it Likely?One has to be careful with these terms...especially in Science.
Other Comments by HourglassMemory
17. Comment #192981 by sent2null on June 14, 2008 at 11:32 am
@qomak comment 15:Does anyone know why it is hard for uracil and xanthine to have been formed in the primordial sea?
Do not assume that because the materials in question had sources that were extraterrestrial that those same materials could not have been produced terrestrially. It might have taken longer given the nature of their constituents (the carbon variety for example) but that doesn't mean it would have been impossible to form on Earth.
It would only make sense that much of the early building blocks of the chemistry for life's
formation entered the Terran cook pot from space. As the planet accreted from the previous nebular cloud materials which contained a rich soup of elements many of them already forming simple compounds in space, it necessarily played the role of cosmic beaker for the chemistry of life.
The idea is old, confirmation of it is the new part.
Other Comments by sent2null
18. Comment #192993 by AmericanGodless on June 14, 2008 at 12:05 pm
I was all excited about the headline, expecting a story of nucleic acid polymers being found in extraterrestrial materials. But not so -- just the bases. The contribution here seems to be evidence that the bases are not contaminants from Earthly biology, but were formed in space. It has been known since the mid-50's that purines and pyrimidines (as well as amino acids) could be generated in pre-biotic conditions (see the Urey-Miller experiment, and subsequent similar work).What I get from this news article and the abstract of the paper is the lesson that purines and pyrimidines can be synthesized naturally even in extraterrestrial conditions. I do not see this as evidence that these extraterrestrial bases contributed to the origin of life on Earth. The purines and pyrimidines involved in the origins of life could well have been (indeed, would almost have to have been) made on Earth. The important step in formation of life is the polymerization of these bases into a chain that can preserve information in the order of the bases.
In particular, the suggestion by ridelo, above, that "molecules with 'space-carbon' landed on earth and somehow started to replicate themselves using compounds with 'earth-carbon'" would be a misconception. These are just single bases (uracil and xanthine); a polymer of these (along with ribose sugars and phosphate bonds) could hold some biological information, but not just the bases. The bases themselves don't "replicate" (that is, act as a template for sythesis of similar molecules). Replication requires a polymer (RNA or DNA, or a similar molecule) from which the information in the base order can be preserved in a new copy.
This is an interesting confirmation that the building blocks of life are common in non-biological conditions, but not really an indicator that "parts of earliest genetic material may have come from the stars," as the headline states. Yes, some extra-terrestrial molecules could have been utilized, but most likely they would only have added to those already present on the pre-biotic Earth.
Other Comments by AmericanGodless
19. Comment #193025 by RamziD on June 14, 2008 at 1:03 pm
I guess now the creationists won't be wrong when they say evolutionists claim we evolved from a rock :)Other Comments by RamziD
20. Comment #193149 by dragonfirematrix on June 14, 2008 at 8:41 pm
I love science! Truth in-progress.
Instead of the Christian fairy tale about Adam and Eve, the story is going to be the truth about Atom and Evolution.
I love science! Real science (not creation science) is about truth, truth in-progress.
Instead of the Christian fairy tale about Adam and Eve, the story is going to be the truth about Atom and Evolution.
I wait for the day that science facts will finally trash all the religious fantasies.
Science is the truth, the light, and the way. No man comes unto the truth except by proof.
Other Comments by dragonfirematrix
21. Comment #193154 by Greyman on June 14, 2008 at 9:23 pm
15. Comment #192941 by qomak on June 14, 2008 at 9:52 am
One question, ruling out the "Goddidit idea", this organize material must have been made somewhere. Does anyone know why it is hard for uracil and xanthine to have been formed in the primordial sea?
Well, for one thing, current models of planetary formation indicate that the Earth was originally too hot to have a primordial sea at first; or much of an atmosphere for that matter. The veneer of water and air are speculated to have been added, from cometary and meteoric impacts, and interplanetary dust, after the planet cooled down a bit. The young solar system was a lot less tidy and much more prone to traffic accidents back then.
So while the compounds might have formed after the fact, it looks like they could have already been in the primordial sea right on formation.
Other Comments by Greyman
22. Comment #193155 by Neuro on June 14, 2008 at 9:31 pm
ROBDINSMORE:Right, it really does not decrease.
Other Comments by Neuro
23. Comment #193258 by DamnDirtyApe on June 15, 2008 at 4:48 am
Forged in the heart of a star.
Fecking. Epic.
Other Comments by DamnDirtyApe
24. Comment #193283 by pulsar1z on June 15, 2008 at 7:41 am
This is fascinating It implies that life is common throughout our Galaxy or at least the building blocks of life. But we must remember that the type of life on Earth is unique to Earth because of the environmental considerations.
Other Comments by pulsar1z
25. Comment #193309 by sornord on June 15, 2008 at 8:47 am
Carl Sagan said on COSMOS 28 years ago, "We are all made of 'star stuff,'" referring to the fact that all heavier elements are forged in and by stars.Chemistry works the same everywhere.
Other Comments by sornord
26. Comment #193314 by genetica_1984 on June 15, 2008 at 9:31 am
I have the full pdf version of the article. Is there a way to upload it or share it with other members if needed?Other Comments by genetica_1984
27. Comment #193440 by Border Collie on June 15, 2008 at 3:47 pm
Imagine that ... life came from stuff in the universe ... no, seriously, fascinating ... Other Comments by Border Collie
28. Comment #193443 by ThoughtsonCommonToad on June 15, 2008 at 3:50 pm
Carl Sagan said on COSMOS 28 years ago, "We are all made of 'star stuff,'" referring to the fact that all heavier elements are forged in and by stars.
What he said was far more profound.
Some part of our being knows, this is where we came from, we long to return; and we can. Because the Cosmos is also within us, we're made of starstuff. We are a way for the Cosmos to know itself.
- Carl Sagan
A Carl Sagan Goldmine
Other Comments by ThoughtsonCommonToad
29. Comment #193445 by Goldy on June 15, 2008 at 3:53 pm
Now, if I remember right, meteors are sort of big sluchy balls of ice and rock and stuff. the stuff of life came, maybe, from one of these. God made life, ergo God is a big ball of sluchy ice and rock.
Flattering....
Other Comments by Goldy
30. Comment #193506 by Veldrik on June 15, 2008 at 6:03 pm
Carbon-rich meteorites, carbonaceous chondrites, contain many biologically relevant organic molecules and delivered prebiotic material to the young Earth. We present compound-specific carbon isotope data indicating that measured purine and pyrimidine compounds are indigenous components of the Murchison meteorite. Carbon isotope ratios for uracil and xanthine of δ13C = 44.5‰ and 37.7‰, respectively, indicate a non-terrestrial origin for these compounds. These new results demonstrate that organic compounds, which are components of the genetic code in modern biochemistry, were already present in the early solar system and may have played a key role in life's origin.
3. Comment #192675 by randumbness47 on June 13, 2008 at 10:30 pm
"The analysis shows that the nucleobases contain a heavy form of carbon which could only have been formed in space. Materials formed on Earth consist of a lighter variety of carbon. "
I'd like to know more about this. What prevents the heavier carbon to form on Earth, or allows it to form only in space?
Buy the full article, (come on, it doesnt cost to much).
Carbon 13 is from plants. It does NOT come from space. Photosynthesis occasionally breaks up the nitrogen and it becomes a form of carbon. about 99% of the time its carbon 13, and much smaller than 1% it's carbon 14. If you blast an area of plant life (or nitrogen) with enough radiation, you get a heap of carbon 13 and carbon 14 isotopes.
All the rock had to be was hot and bright and it would have broken up the nitrogen quite happily.
The article is from a bunch of uni people in the college of london in a journal, where they based it upon
ok, on second thoughts dont buy the article. Stating that large amounts of carbon 13 present from an object that enters the earth at a high velocity and high temperature, MIGHT possibly mean that the article isn't worth the $13.50 they charge. :o)
However the funding may pay for the students and research professor to take up biology as an elective and learn where carbon 13 comes from and how it's naturally made.
Other Comments by Veldrik
31. Comment #193837 by squinky on June 16, 2008 at 5:53 am
American Godless is correct. Nucleobase formation in space is trivial compared to the chemistry to form nucleosides (ribose sugar plus nucleobase) or especially their polymerization (via phosphate backbone) to make strands of RNA (or DNA).
The killer chicken and egg is this: how did nucleobases combine with enantiomerically pure ribose (4 chiral centers) or deoxyribose (3 chiral centers) when all sugars are made by enzymes (also chiral) that are ultimately coded for by DNA/RNA? This is the hard problem and WAY harder still is how did they polymerize? Making strands of DNA and RNA in a soup does NOT happen (scientists have looked for years) and in fact, primordial elements of the "wrong chirality" are known to inhibit the polmerization of life-forming, "right" RNA. The meteoric nucleobase evidence is a QED. It's irrefutable evidence that astrochemistry includes making the simple, non-chiral pieces of our DNA/RNA.
Other Comments by squinky
32. Comment #193847 by squinky on June 16, 2008 at 6:11 am
SAVE YOUR MONEY. Don't buy the article.
Here are some clarifications
To Mordacious and Backfriend:
Life on earth (replicating via enzymes) selects for carbon-12 over carbon-13 to make its molecules. This means all biologically derived carbon is much more enriched in C-12 than C-13 than the natural abundance ratio of 99:1. The reason for this is called the 'isotope effect'. Heavier isotopes make chemical reactions slower and nature has managed to use C-12 to maintain uniform rates of reactivity in chemical transformations involving carbon.
Sent2null: The problem of oceanic nucleobase formation is one of dilution. Chemical reactions drop off in an inverse square with volume. That's not to say it can't happen, actually it's quite likely to happen in hydrothermal vents or volcanic cauldrons or deep in rock where organic molecules can concentrate (not dilute) and undergo chemistry. The open ocean notion is a non-starter. Remember that almost all the Earth's water was delivered by comets (dirty snowballs coated with oily organic muck) so early on, there were no oceans.
Other Comments by squinky
33. Comment #193850 by Steve Zara on June 16, 2008 at 6:15 am
Remember that almost all the Earth's water was delivered by comets (dirty snowballs coated with oily organic muck) so early on, there were no oceans.
Icy environments would have helped. Freezing not only concentrates the nucleotides, but it looks like replication can occur naturally in ice.
Other Comments by Steve Zara
34. Comment #193855 by mmurray on June 16, 2008 at 6:34 am
However the funding may pay for the students and research professor to take up biology as an elective and learn where carbon 13 comes from and how it's naturally made.
Ah no :-( That money goes to Elsevier a large publishing conglomerate who specialise in taking academics research (funded by tax payers), getting it refereed at no cost to themselves by other academics (funded by taxpayers) and then selling the whole lot to primarily university libraries (funded by taxpayers). In short the taxpayer (or for private universities the student fees) pay for the research, pay for it to be refereed and pay to buy it back as a journal. If it was a book there would be a small royalty coming back to the author but nothing for a journal.
It's what's known in parts of London as `a nice little earner'.
Michael
Other Comments by mmurray
35. Comment #193871 by mesomodel on June 16, 2008 at 7:17 am
I've got the article in PDF. If you want a copy, PM me and I'll send a link. rod-the-farmer: I've already PM'd you.
Other Comments by mesomodel
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1. Comment #192668 by ivellios on June 13, 2008 at 10:06 pm
It's not like I follow biology religiously but it is becoming increasingly hard to avoid the fact that some molecules just "like" to come together and form more complex systems.
The Id'rs like to state that form and function cannot come from chaos but don't we see that everyday? When a tornado or hurricane forms isn't that a more complex system rising out of chaos?
Am I mistaken?
Other Comments by ivellios